United Kingdom

H

2

Current Trends

Many class distinctions have become blurred in Britain. Today only a small number of people are considered upper class, and their former influence in conservative politics has been largely taken over by wealthy people in the middle class. Liberal and left-wing politics have middle-class leadership as well. Because the British economy has created many semiprofessional and technical jobs, it is no longer easy to tell which jobs are middle class and which are working class. Moreover, growing national affluence has brought greater social mobility between the working class and the middle class. As technological advances have expanded the ranks of affluent professionals, managers, administrators, and technical experts, part of the working population has shifted into these positions and now identifies itself as middle class. Although prosperity may move working-class people into the middle class, no amount of wealth will guarantee upper-class status, which is determined by land and family.

The increasingly widespread distribution of capital has also blurred class lines, as more money in the form of stocks, bonds, property, and bank accounts is in more hands. Many middle-class employees and workers have become owners of capital. Much of the 20th century saw a decreasing inequality in wealth, due in part to the spread of home ownership and the creation of government programs to promote equal access to health services and education. Inequality in income began to increase during the 1980s.

Family structure has changed as well. Married couples have an average of two children, a figure that has not changed since World War II. However, marriage rates fell in the 1980s, and there has been a significant shift from formal marriage to stable cohabitation. By 1993 one-third of births were to parents who were not formally married; by the early 2000s, this number had surpassed two-fifths (42 percent).

H

3

Current Social Problems

Perhaps the worst feature of the current class situation in Britain is the existence of a permanent underclass. These people are on the dole, that is, on welfare, permanently. They subsist in poor surroundings with little hope that they or their children, who usually drop out of school, will break out of the cycle of poverty. This segment of the population lives in the run-down neighborhoods of cities such as Glasgow, Liverpool, and Leeds. In the mid-1990s it was estimated that about 23 percent of the population lived in poverty, one of the highest poverty rates in Europe.

---

---

Another social problem, somewhat related to this underclass, has been the rise in crime and violence. Vandalism and rowdiness by youths are problems in British society, and the brutality of British football (soccer) fans has gained international notoriety. These outbursts stand out in a society where civility and politeness are prominent characteristics. Yet overall the rate of violent crime, and crime in general, remains far below that of the United States. In 1996 about 92 percent of the offenses recorded by the police in England and Wales were directed against property; only 7 percent involved violence.

The degree to which racism is a problem in Britain is a source of debate. Some say it is a hidden tradition and others believe that decency and fair play prevail. Expressions of racism include not only those based on color but also those based on culture. Poverty, poor housing, and unemployment were some of the causes behind inner-city disturbances of the 1980s. Black people and some groups of Asians in Britain suffer from higher unemployment than whites, and have had comparatively little mobility within the employment market. These groups also have tended to have inferior housing, education, and health care. The situation is improving among the generations born in Britain.

As the percentage of women in Britain’s workforce has risen, women have struggled for equal pay for equal work. The state passed an Equal Pay Act in 1970 that has been aggressively applied to civil service, teaching, and local government jobs. The Sex Discrimination Act of 1975 made discrimination between men and women unlawful in employment, education, training, housing, facilities, and services. In 1987 another Sex Discrimination bill sought to bring the 1975 measure within guidelines established by the European Economic Community (now the European Union). In the early 2000s about one-fifth of the members of the House of Commons were women.

I

Social Services

I

1

National Health Care

The British government administers an extensive health and welfare system that the Labour government established between 1945 and 1951. The National Health Service Act of 1946 established the socialized health-care system that went into effect in 1948 (see National Health Insurance). Because citizens were deemed to have a right to free health care, it provided free medical care for all British people regardless of income. The system covered physician and dental services, prescription drugs, hospital care, eyeglasses, and dentures. It provided better health care than most people could previously afford, but the program cost more than anticipated. Therefore, some charges were introduced for prescriptions, dentures, and eyeglasses. Nevertheless, costs for the government remained high due to expensive new technologies, as well as the growing demand for services, especially by the increasing number of elderly people.

General taxation pays for most of the system’s cost, and the national insurance payment—money that employers and employees contribute—takes care of the remainder. Treatment fees for items such as prescriptions and eyewear have risen for patients in recent decades. Certain patients—including children, pregnant women, the unemployed, those disabled in the armed forces, men over 65, and women over 60—are exempt from payments or fees. Hospital care remains free. Most doctors, dentists, nurses, and health-care professionals are members of the National Health Service (NHS), although some see fee-paying private patients outside of the system.

The controversial NHS and Community Care Act of 1990 sought to make health care more efficient and less costly by encouraging competition within the health-care industry. The act allowed hospitals and other health-care professionals to become trusts that directly control the funds they receive from the government. They now could determine their own staffing needs, salaries, and service fees, things previously determined by local health authorities, who controlled their funds. Under the 1990 act, local health authorities, which are responsible for providing health care to the public with government money, would “purchase” health care for patients from these trusts. In addition, general practitioners (GPs), or ordinary family doctors, were encouraged to become fundholders or directly manage the NHS funds allotted for their patients. The new health-care arrangements were designed to bring competitive market forces to bear upon health care, with the trusts competing to become the facility chosen by local health authorities and GPs to provide health care to patients.

In order to improve service and guarantee higher levels of patient care, Patient’s Charters were started in 1992. The charters list the rights and service standards patients can expect. In particular, they pledge to provide treatment within a specific time span, since long delays for treatment and elective surgery were among the chief complaints about the system. Since 1992 separate charters have been created for the various kinds of health services, such as for dental, mental health, and maternity care. In contrast, emergency care has always gained high approval.

The system established in 1990 has been criticized. Patients of doctors who were not fundholders complained they were not receiving hospital treatment as quickly as patients whose doctors managed their funds. The new hospital trusts are criticized for their admissions policies, including sending patients to other hospitals, and for not being sufficiently accountable for spending. While NHS hospitals have long waiting lists, private hospitals have empty beds because fewer people can afford them. The Labour government increased funding for the NHS and instituted reforms of the payment system and administrative structure. Despite the reforms and increased funding, the NHS was running huge deficits in the early 2000s and services had not improved.

I

2

Welfare

Welfare services in Britain are supported by taxpayers and are meant to act as a safety net for the entire society from birth to death. The needs of those in difficulty are met by local authorities, who draw upon funds provided by the central government. Revenue for the system also comes from compulsory weekly contributions by employees and employers. Those in need receive weekly cash benefits. There are also special services for the disabled.

The National Insurance Act of 1946 consolidated earlier welfare legislation, expanded coverage, and increased benefits for a number of programs, including unemployment insurance, industrial injuries, retiree pensions, sickness insurance, maternity and widows’ benefits, and death grants. Today there are family allowances for children up to the age of 16 (18 if the child is still in school full time), as well as allowances for guardians and widows. Pensions for the elderly, or retirement benefits, begin for men at the age of 65 and for women at the age of 60. The pension age for women was set to rise to age 65 between 2010 and 2020.

IV

Culture and the Arts of the United Kingdom

Britain’s rich cultural heritage and traditions are the main reasons why it has millions of overseas visitors each year. The attractions include the many theaters, museums, art galleries, and historical buildings to be found in all parts of the United Kingdom, as well as the numerous annual arts festivals and the pageantry associated with the British royal family. The expansion of tourism, combined with the collapse of many traditional economic activities, has helped encourage the growth since the 1980s of the so-called heritage industry, seen in the explosion of “living” museums illustrating Britain’s rural and industrial past.