VII.

The American and French Revolutions

For many, the Enlightenment’s rejection of feudalism and aristocracy along with its faith in progress through unfettered individualism were realized in the American (1775-1783) and French (1789-1799) revolutions. The French philosophe the marquis de Condorcet described America as, of all nations, “the most enlightened, the freest and the least burdened by prejudices.” Its respect for human rights, he wrote, provided a lesson for all the peoples of the world. He offered what would be the characteristic praise of America, where there were “no distinctions of class” and where property was secure and hard work encouraged. In America no spiritual or political aristocracy, he wrote, held “a part of the human race in a state of humiliation, simplicity, and misery.” Diderot, in turn, saw America as “offering all the inhabitants of Europe an asylum against fanaticism and tyranny.” For Turgot, the American people were “the hope of the human race, they may well become its model.” Anglo-American political philosopher Thomas Paine joined the chorus, writing that the cause of America was “the cause of all mankind.”

The French Revolution, as well, seemed to realize much of the Enlightenment’s agenda. The politics of the aristocratic and monarchical old order were replaced by parliamentary institutions and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Feudal restrictions on individual economic activity were removed. Primogeniture (the firstborn son’s right to property inheritance), enforced tithes, and obligatory service to the lord of the manor gave way to new economic ideals focused on individual property rights and free market principles. The revolutionaries waged a vigorous campaign to “de-Christianize” France. The state took over schools and church property, making the clergy civic employees.